19th century
The 19th century (the Christian era ) is the 19th period of 100 years, thus comprising the years 1801 to 1900 . The 19th century belongs to the 2nd millennium . Content * 1 Summary * 2 Events and developments * 3 Important people of the 19th century * 4 last Dutch 19th-century figures Summary The nineteenth century is characterized by unprecedented progress of science. The age of technology raises a materialistic worldview on, believe in progress and evaluate the things on usefulness ( utilitarianism ). The European countryside undergoes metamorphoses in the field of agricultural technology and in terms of land ownership. Marital life forms evolve and administrative centralization ( bureaucratization ) helps in the formation of imperialist powers and the Europeanization of the world. Political revolutions do away with the autocracy and lay the foundations for democratic states class and popular sovereignty . This idea of the state (for the first time realized in North America and distributed since the French Revolution in Europe) combats the old powers and the regime of Napoleon and sets the political nationality feeling in the place. Historians use in their periodization often the term " long nineteenth century "as typical period between the French Revolution ( 1789 ) and the beginning of the First World War ( 1914 ). This is in contrast to the "short-twentieth century "(1914- 1991 ). Events and developments [ edit ] A high bi ; Europe * The Congress System make the five major powers from the service in Europe after Napoleon: Prussia, Russia, Austria, England and Bourbon France. They regulate the conflicts usually through diplomacy , and only exceptionally by war. * The policy of Germanization of the Slavs in Austria lead to the creation of the Pan-Slavism . Under the protection of Russia want this early romantic Pan-Slavism-border cultural and economic union of all Slavic nations create. * Russian expansion accompanied by ethnic cleansing : millions of Crimean Tatars and Muslims of the Caucasus are expelled, usually to the Ottoman Empire . * In multicultural Danube monarchy arose on all sides separatist movements. The Hungarian uprising of 1848 leading to a reform of the unit capable of Dual Monarchy : theKingdom of Hungary is equivalent to the Austrian Empire . * The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 leading to the end of the German Confederation . After the interlude of the North German Confederation in 1871 in the hall of mirrors of Versailles the German Empire proclaimed. * In 1810 a minority of countries in Europe a constitution , in 1870 , only Russia , the Ottoman Empire and Monaco none. Principles of the Enlightenment as equality before the law and legal certainty be enshrined in a constitution, which is the foundation of the rule of law . They are elaborated in codes of criminal and civil law , beginning with the Napoleonic Code and the Criminal Code . This process is codification mentioned. The law shifts to the margins of the law. ; Slavery * While Napoleon restores slavery alive, Denmark bought this place in 1808, and the United Kingdom announces the end of the slave trade . Netherlands must take to regain its colonies. * While the British (1834) and the French (1848), abolishing slavery, his United States deeply divided. Politics Washington maintains convulsively balance in the Union between slaveholding free and slave states. In the north develops the abolitionism , and want to know the plantation owners in the south unbeatable. The controversy ends in the American Civil War . * Countries like the United Kingdom and the Netherlands go after the abolition of slavery, cheap labor recruitment in Asia. Tens of thousands of Hindus , Indian Muslims and Javanese are shipped to the West Indies to work on the plantation as indentured laborers there taking the freed slaves. ; Netherlands and Belgium Belgian Revolution * Netherlands is a unitary state . The old provinces are maintained, and Limburg and Brabant finally get that status. The Delicious rights are abolished and the difference between city and countryside disappears into the board: they are municipalities . The law is regulated for the whole country uniform. * The Belgian Revolution of 1830 leading to independence in 1831 , de facto , supported by France and protected by the United Kingdom. After years of wrangling over the border and on the distribution of the debt is Belgium in 1839 at the London Convention recognized by the Netherlands. * The European revolution year 1848 brings much unrest but little change. Netherlands is a parliamentary democracy . * The Unitarianism in 1804 also leads to a unity spelling of the Dutch language. The spelling Siegenbeek not please everyone, so fulminates literary Willem Bilderdijk against the "long ij". In the independent Belgium is Siegenbeek in 1844 replaced by William spelling . In 1863 set De Vries and Te Winkel a glossary on behalf of the Dutch Language Dictionary. Their spelling, combining Siegenbeek, Bilderdijk and Willems, first recognized in Belgium and later in the Netherlands as the official spelling. But in 1891 the Amsterdam Kollewijn teacher pleads for another change: from forest to forest, from fish to fish. * in 1810 explains the conscription of Napoleon the basis for the service in the Netherlands. King William I then enter it. Moreover, if one has enough money, one canremplaçamt be hired, a system that is widely seen as undemocratic. Only in 1899, the personal service is a fact. ; America * Wars of Independence in Latin America . The French occupation of the Spanish mainland Spain, its grip on the overseas territories no longer maintain effective and this ensures that the Spanish colonies in America have the opportunity to rebel against the Spanish colonial government. This brings from 1810 opposition proceedings against the Spanish governors, that in twenty years get the whole sub-continent in its grip. But the rebellious colonies have different interests and needs and the Spanish American colonial empire quickly disintegrates into ever smaller competing parts. By Simón Bolívar dreamed "United States of South America" remains just a dream. The subcontinent is the rest of the century plagued by internal wars, civil wars, revolutions and coups. * The United States refuses to interfere in Europe and do not allow Europe meddling in South America. The Monroe Doctrine allows them the opportunity to get involved himself extensively with the southern neighbor countries, they are going to increasingly see as their backyard. * The USA are deeply divided over the issue of slavery . The slaveholding states in the south and the slaves free states in the north remain in balance until the election of Abraham Lincoln as president. TheAmerican Civil War from 1861 to 1865 leads to a legal abolition of slavery, but not to civil rights for the freed plantation slaves. Their integration is prevented by obscure organizations like the Ku Klux Clan and theJim Crow Laws . * The conquest and occupation of the western United States begins after the end of the American Civil War in 1865 . Around 1890 are the Pacific and the previously colonized California reached. Keeps the Wild West to exist. * The Cabinet War (Guerra de Castas) is a war of the original Mayan people of Yucatán against the white elite and the Mexican government. The Cabinet War lasts from 1847 to 1901 and cost more than 300,000 lives. ; Asia * After two centuries of seclusion open Japan to the outside world again. In 1802 is Nikolai Rezanov the first envoy of the Czar. Half a century later, forcing the American Commodore Matthew Perry the Japanese government to open its ports for trading ships from the west. In 1867 put an end to the shogunate and starts the Meiji period . * Even China must open its ports, but the old empire must also western trade colonies ("concessions") tolerate in its coastal cities. It is even in two opium wars forced to tolerate the English trade in the drug. * France occupied Indo-China * Dutch East Indies comes in 1816 directly under the authority of the Dutch government. The Culture System generates large profits and brings the motherland on top financially again. It should be conducted regularly war with recalcitrant islands and frost areas. * The Great Game : Russia and the UK compete for power and influence in Afghanistan . * During the Qajar dynasty obtain European powers such as the United Kingdom and Russia gradually relatively large influence in Persia , but the country remains independent. ; Africa * The British take the refreshment station for the Dutch East India Cape Colony in 1806 with violence on and give it back after the Napoleonic era. The new British rulers themselves with the Boers in conflict asBritain in 1834 the slavery abolishes. Thus begins the Great Trek into the interior, where the Afrikaners the Boer republics found. After some conflicts they get British recognition. Such recognition ceases if the lands gold is found. ; Industry and trade * While the Industrial Revolution after the Napoleonic era gets under way in continental Europe, starting in the second half of the century in Britain and the United States the Second Industrial Revolution . It contains scientific management and technological development priority. * Strong development of the mining industry , thanks to the steam engine . coal consuming iron - and Steel develops in the vicinity of the coal mines. Examples of the English Midlands , the Belgian Wallonia , the Prussian Ruhr , the French Alsace-Lorraine and the US Pittsburgh . emerging railways also allow the coal to drain, and in most cities gasworks built the city gas supply to street and the gas lamp in the living room. * The free trade and steam navigation , the world very beneficial. For agriculture in Europe since 1870, this means heavy competition from large-scale farms in North and South America. * In England created the cooperative , an association of consumers, producers or residents participating in commercial transactions for the joint account. ; Socio-economic * Age of Economic liberalism , which the government hardly interferes with the economy ( watchman State ). Gradually creates resistance especially against the general child . * In response to liberalism creates the socialism , in the beginning of the century in the form of Utopianism of Robert Owen and Claude Henri de Saint-Simon , the mid-century in which the scientific socialism of Karl Marx and at the end of the century as the practical socialism of Ferdinand Lassalle . * The cottage industry for example, textile and cigar disappear by mechanization . Rapid industrialization and urbanization lead to the creation of a lumpenproletariat . * The industry is often the truck system applied: workers have to spend part of their pay in a shop of the employer or his relationship. In Belgium it is called truck system. * By industrialization and improved health care results in a rapid increase in the population. The warning of the British economist Robert Malthus , that economic growth can not keep up with population growth, is likely to come out. By liberalism generates large income disparities, which have much effect on birth rates. "The rich get richer, the poor get children." Against creates resistance, bundled in the Netherlands, founded in 1881 Neo-Malthusian League and embodied by the first female physician Aletta Jacobs . She pulls the Amsterdam-class district of the Jordan River in order to educate people about women's birth control . ; Science and technology Drawing of different types of turtles in Ernst Haeckel's''Kunstformen der Natur'' (1904), which serves the principle ofgenetic variation in the theory of evolution to illustrate. * The theory of evolution gradually become accepted at the expense of the former common creationism . The resistance of the Pope and Protestant Christian leaders does little to change this. The theory of evolution, and from there the doctrine of natural selection has great impact on science as a whole and on the philosophy of the 19th century man.Which is determined by a Materialistic view that all natural phenomena can be traced back to natural laws . By 1900 it is evolutionism and materialism the new ideology of the most prominent scientists. * Craniometry (skull measurement) is used to support anthropological and ethnological research (see cultural anthropology ). It is believed that one can do on the basis of the sizes and bumps on the skull statements about the person ( phrenology ). * Since 1810, the extinct dinosaurs scientifically described in 1842 and the group gets its name. Many dinosaur fossils are discovered between 1870 and 1925, especially in North America . * In the belief that business 'calculable' are ( rationalization ) scholars strive to meticulous establishment of facts and to exact fact research ( positivism ). * In Mathematics major progress to be made. Cantor examines the concept of infinity and the logical investigations of George Boole lays the foundations for programming languages and thus for the future computers and the information age . * The physics is also, using among others, the new mathematical techniques, made great progress. The Century of Faraday , X , Herz and Maxwell . In the wake of the science also makes the technology giant strides: Tesla , Edison , Benz , Siemens , Bosch and many others. * In the English industry do Interchangeable parts are introduced, a step towards the standardization of the production process. * Improvements in the metal as better iron and steel . The Bessemer process and the blast furnace will greatly improves so getting cheaper and in large amounts of steel and cast iron is available as raw materials for example, machinery, construction and railway industries. * In 1817 discovered the Frenchman Louis Vicat the chemical principles of cement . In 1824 the Englishman takes Joseph Aspdin patented Portland cement , a product of burning limestone and clay in coal furnaces. The First English Portland Cement is founded in 1843, the first German Portland Cement dates from 1855. * Synthetic dyes are taking the place of scarce and expensive pigments as vermilion , indigo , madder and lapis lazuli . ; Cultural and philosophical changes * In response to the French Revolution created the German Idealism which pursues an organic development of society. It is closely associated with Romanticism and originates from Hegel to make the philosophy of Immanuel Kant wants to develop further. Other important representatives are the philosophers Fichte and Schelling and the theologian Schleiermacher . * The Romanticism in art leads to strong expressions of feeling. There is demand for a story in history. Love for nature and for the country leads to nationalism . * The realism , flourished around 1840-1890, opposes the subjective feelings of the artist's actual and often cutthroat, described candidly. * The emergence of the French diplomatic and cultural world language and German as a scientific language, at the expense of Latin . ; Arts and entertainment * With the rise of the novel, the woman will play a greater role in the literature. In France reach Madame de Stael and George Sand high status in England that Jane Austen and sisters Emily , Anne and Charlotte Brontë . The Dutch Sweater Bosboom-Toussaint specializes in the historical novel , a popular genre in this century. * Ivanhoe by Walter Scott set the tone for the historical novel. Other successful works in the genre are The Lion of Flanders of Hendrik Conscience , The shepherd of Jan Frederik Oltmans , The Three Musketeersby Alexandre Dumas père . The last published "The Count of Monte Christo" as serial , a genre that since Dickens had become popular. * Popular dances are the Quadrille , the polka and waltz . * It is the century of the great piano virtuosos such as Ludwig van Beethoven , John Field , Johann Nepomuk Hummel , Ignaz Moscheles , Chopin , Clara Wieck and Franz Liszt . * From the French opéra comique and the German Singspiel develops the Operetta , successfully works by Jacques Offenbach and Johann Strauss. . * The Academic Art mastered the Salon de Paris with its laws and fixed forms until the Impressionism France and conquering the world. * The Rise and flowering of art colonies , beginning with Barbizon . * The photography develops from the Daguerreotype . The bourgeoisie organizes evenings when photographs are played through the magic lantern . Century experience yet that the captured image is moving: themovie . * The first children's books are highly moralistic content. They propose a protagonist as an example, as brave Hendrik , or specter ( Klaas Capon ). ; Religion * In the Netherlands, the Dutch Reformed Church , which is not a "public church" has more to contend with secretions. The men of the Réveil remain within the church, but in 1834 leave the Secessionists . In 1886, leaving Abraham Kuyper and his followers also the church in the Doleantie . * Return of the Roman Catholic Church in the northern Dutch society. The struggle for church buildings is lulled by the government with the active support of new construction of churches by the government.Between 1824 and 1875 the rise everywhere Water Churches . * Age of the Mission and Mission : the spread of Christianity among the Indians, in Asia and in South Africa. * The Indian movement Brahmo Samaj encourages a reform of Hinduism towards a monotheistic religion. ; Transport and communications * Invention of the telegraph in the beginning, and the phone at the end of the century, making the world smaller than he was. * Newspapers find, especially after the abolition of the newspaper stamp , large spread among the bourgeoisie sat. They bring messages from all the places that are important for trade. * Railroads to be built across Europe and then beyond. The principle of guide on rails is also used for the horse-drawn and subsequently the steam . * Trains take the intercity mail about the stagecoach . In all cities the post offices . English invention of the stamp is quickly adopted in mainland Europe. * The balloon is being developed as a hobby of the rich; so also the velocipede . ; Health Care * The application of hygiene measures in the operating room by Ignaz Semmelweis , the discovery of the bacterium by Louis Pasteur and research by Joseph Lister lead to a sharp decline in the post-operative mortality in hospitals. * Led by director Jean-Martin Charcot , the Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris, the European center for research on hysteria and dissociative disorders . Extensive research has been conducted into the use ofhypnosis . Also, neurological disorders such as epilepsy , amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and multiple sclerosis studied and described. * In the Middle Ages by William Arntsz Utrecht founded madhouse between 1830 and 1860 by Schroeder van der Kolk completely reorganized. No longer is it a place where madmen are "stored", but the main purpose of the treatment and nursing is healing. Nijmegen provides the couple of Duuren John and Mary Fountain in Cell Broederhuis psychiatric patients in a whole new way. Patients are free to walk instead of being imprisoned. They get normal clothes and a normal bed. Is searched for a meaningful activities, which looks at (work) experience. Instead of coercion is attempted to operate the mentally ill in a protected world. * Among the well-off state becomes staying at spas in vogue. Doctors often can not do more than rest and fresh air for writing, and for this purpose a stay by the sea, in the woods or in the mountains considered ideal. In the Ardennes, the ancient Baths of Spa developed in Valkenburg, the Kurhaus Huis ter Geul built at Scheveningen and the Kurhaus . In Eastern Europe and the United States discovers the Turkish bath . ; Sport * Germany draws Friedrich Ludwig Jahn in 1811 the first Turn square. The gymnastics spreads and in the Netherlands and Belgium established the first gymnastics clubs in 1830. The sport is still a semi-military character. ; City and country * Napoleon classifies the roads in his kingdom as national roads, provincial roads and byways. This classification is taken over by William I, who the pavement of the rich causeways lodges in a first state highway plan . * The development of the artillery and ballistics make the defense of cities within their walls meaningless. The city walls and gates are being demolished and erected on the ramparts often the first city parks . * Most roads are paved between 1850 and 1880 with Nose , a variant of the English Macadamwegen . Above the rubble of the demolished city walls is used. In the East they used pebbles, which are allowed by knocking unemployed to keislag. Also gravel recovered from the river improvement , and bazaltblokken imported from Germany. * Around 1829 the estate grounds are Twente and sold elsewhere, most of the hitherto bondsmen. Drenthe are the peat colonies opened. In the second half of the century the common commons be split and sold to be mined. * In home care the Argand lamp , and later the kerosene lamp for better lighting with less side effects. the first gaslight on the streets and squares is applied from 1812 in London and on the mainland in Freiberg .Not until after 1850 throughout gas plants are built, is a decent public lighting from the ground and from the ground: the gas lines are usually the first underground facilities. From 1878 additionally experimented with electric arc lamps . * European cities begin with the construction of water supply and sewerage . From England, the invention of the water closet , the toilet flush. The hygiene is greatly improved by this and epidemics are less common. The construction of cemeteries outside the cities, the public health benefit. * While urbanization continues and more than half the population lives in cities, including the bourgeoisie creates a pull out. Which is limited to a day trip with Lustig , the special pleasure train or at the end of the century, with the vélo . The Veluwe and Limburg created the first guest . ; Animals * The economic use of animals is common, but excesses are sometimes countered. The introduction of the steam engine makes it mill horse superfluous. The barge will disappear, but new to the horse-drawnomnibus and the horse tram . Pull Dogs in the Netherlands and Belgium in use everywhere, but they are countered in France and England. Cruel people entertain as " katknuppelen "and" eel pulling "be banned and the animal is established. * In major cities are zoos founded. These are intended to bring the citizenry knowledge of the natural history , but gradually get a recreational function. * It originated in England and France throughout circuses . Often the entire families who founded his own circus and thus try to earn their living. For example, in France the circus Franconi and in England the circus of the brothers Sanger. The circus tradition also blows over to America. Since the first traveling tent circus created around 1830. Here are wild animals such as lions and tigers, introduced in the circus program. Important people of the 19th century [ edit ] Vincent van Gogh * Joseph Aspdin , inventor of Portland cement * Jane Austen , author * Ludwig van Beethoven , composer * Jeremy Bentham , British political economist * Otto von Bismarck , the inventor of Realpolitik and unifier of the German states. * Simón Bolívar , independence fighter * Napoleon Bonaparte , French statesman and conqueror * Johannes Brahms , German composer * Ludwig Boltzmann , an Austrian physicist * Anton Bruckner , Austrian composer * Lord Byron , British poet * Marie-Antoine Carême , epicure * Frederic Chopin , composer * Charles Darwin , the founder of the theory of evolution * Charles Dickens , British writer * Benjamin Disraeli , British politician * Fyodor Dostoyevsky , Russian novelist and writer * Thomas Edison , inventor * Michael Faraday , British physicist * Giuseppe Garibaldi , Vere Niger Italy * Carl Friedrich Gauss , German mathematician and physicist * Johann Wolfgang Goethe , German writer * William Ewart Gladstone , British politician * Vincent van Gogh , painter * Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel , German philosopher * Katsushika Hokusai , Japanese woodblock artist * Benito Juárez , statesman * Heinrich Lenz , who discovered the law of Lenz * Abraham Lincoln , American president during the American Civil War, which also abolished slavery * David Livingstone , explorer and missionary * Gustav Mahler , Austrian composer * Karl Marx , economic philosopher * James Clerk Maxwell , British physicist * John Stuart Mill , British political economist * Dmitri Mendeleev , Russian chemist * Klemens von Metternich , the Austrian Chancellor * Napoleon III . French emperor * Friedrich Nietzsche , philosopher * Franz Joseph I of Austria , Austro-Hungarian emperor * Henri Poincare , French mathematician * Bernhard Riemann , German mathematician * John D. Rockefeller , American businessman, capitalist and philanthropist * Arthur Schopenhauer , German philosopher * Franz Schubert , German composer * Robert Schumann , German composer * Nikola Tesla , inventor * Johan Rudolph Thorbecke , Dutch state reformer * Jules Verne , French writer * Queen Victoria , British Queen * Richard Wagner , German composer * Émile Zola , French writer Latest Dutch 19th-century figures * John van der Giessen (1899-2008), last surviving Dutch man from the 19th century, deceased in 2008 * Grietje Jansen-Anker (1897-2009), last surviving Dutch woman from the 19th century, deceased in 2009 Category: 19th century